• Combustion of alkane involves the reaction of alkane with oxygen gas in the air.
• Complete combustion of an alkane is when the oxygen gas is in excess.
• The products of complete combustion of alkane are carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Example of the complete combustion of methane:

\(CH_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \rightarrow CO_2(g) + 2H_2O(l)\)

• In the case of insufficiency of oxygen gas, the incomplete combustion of alkane occurs.
• The products such as carbon monoxide and carbon might be formed from incomplete combustion of alkane.
• Example of the incomplete combustion of methane;

\(2CH_4(g) + 3O_2(g) \rightarrow C(s)+CO_2(g) + 4H_2O(l)\)

or

\(6CH_4(g) + 9O_2(g) \rightarrow 2C(s)+2CO(g)+2CO_2(g) + 12H_2O(l)\)

• A chemical reaction where another atom is substituting one or more atoms in a molecule.
• The substitution reaction of alkane that involves halogen is also called a halogenation reaction.
• The sunlight is needed in this reaction.
• The energy from the sunlight is needed to break the covalent bond in the halogen compound to form bond with halogen atoms.
• Example of substitution reaction of methane with chlorin:

\(CH_4(g) + Cl_2(g) \rightarrow CH_2Cl_2(l) + H_2(g)\)

• Combustion of alkene involves the reaction of an alkene with oxygen gas in the air.
• Complete combustion of an alkene is when the oxygen gas is in excess.
• The products of complete combustion of alkene are carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Example of the complete combustion of ethene:

\(C_2H_4(g) + 3O_2(g) \rightarrow 2CO_2(g)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

• In the case of insufficiency of oxygen gas, the incomplete combustion of alkene occurs.
• The products such as carbon monoxide and carbon might be formed from incomplete combustion of the alkene.
• Example of the incomplete combustion of ethene:

\(C_2H_4(g) + O_2(g) \rightarrow 2C(p)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

atau

\(C_2H_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \rightarrow 2CO(g)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

• Definition: a reaction where other atoms are added to a molecule.
• The double bond in the alkene makes the compound reactive.
• The addition reaction occurs at the double bond of the compound.
• Five addition reactions that occur on alkenes is as stated below:

• The pair of electrons making up one of the double bonds is shared with the carbon atom of another alkene molecule in the polymerisation reaction.
• Example: polymerisation of ethene:
  • Polymer: polyethene.
  • Monomer: ethene.
  • Pressure: 2000 atm.
  • Temperature: 100°C to 300°C.

• Addition reaction with water (steam)
  • Catalyst: phosphoric acid.
  • Temperature: 300°C.
  • Pressure: 60 atm.
• \(C_2H_4(g) + H_2O(l) \xrightarrow[]{H_3PO_4} C_2H_5OH(l)\)

• The fermentation process of carbohydrate or sugary substances like rice, barley or fruits
  • These substances contain glucose.
  • Zymase in yeast acts as a catalyst to convert glucose to ethanol. 
• • \(C_6H_{12}O_6(aq) \xrightarrow[]{yis} 2C_2H_5OH(l) + 2CO_2(g)\)

• Combustion of ethanol in excess oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water. 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) + 3O_2 (g) \rightarrow 2CO_2(g) + 3H_2O(l)\)

• Ethanol is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
• Product: ethanoic acid
• Dichromate ion (orange) changes to chromium ion (green). 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{[O]} CH_3COOH(l)\)

• A water molecule is eliminated from the reaction.
• Catalyst: sulphuric acid.
• Temperature: 180°C.
• Product: ethene.
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{H_2SO_4, 180^\circ C} C_2H_4(g) + H_2O(l)\)

• Oxidation of ethanol
  • Ethanol is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
  • Dichromate ion (orange) changes to chromium ion (green). 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{[O]} CH_3COOH (l)\)

• Product: salt and water
• Also known as neutralisation reaction.
• Example of reaction with sodium hydroxide:
• \(CH_3COOH (aq) + NaOH(aq) \rightarrow CH_3COONa (aq) + H_2O(l)\)

• Product: salt and hydrogen gas  
• Example of reaction with magnesium:
• \(2CH_3COOH (aq) + Mg(s) \rightarrow (CH_3COO)_2Mg (aq) + H_2(g)\)

• Product: salt, carbon dioxide gas and water
• Example of reaction with calcium carbonate:
• \(2CH_3COOH (aq) + CaCO_3(s) \rightarrow (CH_3COO)_2Ca(aq) + H_2O(l) + CO_2(g)\)

• Product: ester.
• Also known as an esterification reaction.
• Catalyst: hydrogen ion.
• \(CH_3COOH (aq) + C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow []{H^+}CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq) + H_2O(l)\)

• Functional group: carboxylate group,  \(-COOC-\)
• General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}COOC_mH_{2m+1}\), where n = 0,1,2,… and m = 1,2,3,…

• Ester is produced by combining alcohol with carboxylic acid.
• There are two parts to naming an ester.
• The first part is based on the name of the alcohol.
• The second part is based on the name of the carboxylic acid.
• Example: Ethyl butanoate.

1. Determine the alkyl group of the alcohol chain based on the structural formula or the molecular formula.
2. Determine the name of the carboxylic acid part.
3. Change the term ‘oic’ in carboxylic acid to ‘oate’.

• Mixing ethanoic acid with ethanol by reflux reaction.
• Reflux is needed because ethanol is a volatile solution.
• \(CH_3COOH(aq)+ C_2H_5OH(aq) \xrightarrow[]{ H_2SO_4}  CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq)+H_2O(l)\)

• A colourless solution at room temperature.
• Nice fruity smell.
• Soluble in water.

• Product: ester.
• Also known as an esterification reaction.
• Catalyst: hydrogen ion.
• Example of esterification reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol:
• \(CH_3COOH(aq)+ C_2H_5OH(aq) \xrightarrow[]{ H_2SO_4}  CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq)+H_2O(l)\)

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• Combustion of alkane involves the reaction of alkane with oxygen gas in the air.
• Complete combustion of an alkane is when the oxygen gas is in excess.
• The products of complete combustion of alkane are carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Example of the complete combustion of methane:

\(CH_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \rightarrow CO_2(g) + 2H_2O(l)\)

• In the case of insufficiency of oxygen gas, the incomplete combustion of alkane occurs.
• The products such as carbon monoxide and carbon might be formed from incomplete combustion of alkane.
• Example of the incomplete combustion of methane;

\(2CH_4(g) + 3O_2(g) \rightarrow C(s)+CO_2(g) + 4H_2O(l)\)

or

\(6CH_4(g) + 9O_2(g) \rightarrow 2C(s)+2CO(g)+2CO_2(g) + 12H_2O(l)\)

• A chemical reaction where another atom is substituting one or more atoms in a molecule.
• The substitution reaction of alkane that involves halogen is also called a halogenation reaction.
• The sunlight is needed in this reaction.
• The energy from the sunlight is needed to break the covalent bond in the halogen compound to form bond with halogen atoms.
• Example of substitution reaction of methane with chlorin:

\(CH_4(g) + Cl_2(g) \rightarrow CH_2Cl_2(l) + H_2(g)\)

• Combustion of alkene involves the reaction of an alkene with oxygen gas in the air.
• Complete combustion of an alkene is when the oxygen gas is in excess.
• The products of complete combustion of alkene are carbon dioxide gas and water.
• Example of the complete combustion of ethene:

\(C_2H_4(g) + 3O_2(g) \rightarrow 2CO_2(g)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

• In the case of insufficiency of oxygen gas, the incomplete combustion of alkene occurs.
• The products such as carbon monoxide and carbon might be formed from incomplete combustion of the alkene.
• Example of the incomplete combustion of ethene:

\(C_2H_4(g) + O_2(g) \rightarrow 2C(p)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

atau

\(C_2H_4(g) + 2O_2(g) \rightarrow 2CO(g)+ 2H_2O(l)\)

• Definition: a reaction where other atoms are added to a molecule.
• The double bond in the alkene makes the compound reactive.
• The addition reaction occurs at the double bond of the compound.
• Five addition reactions that occur on alkenes is as stated below:

• The pair of electrons making up one of the double bonds is shared with the carbon atom of another alkene molecule in the polymerisation reaction.
• Example: polymerisation of ethene:
  • Polymer: polyethene.
  • Monomer: ethene.
  • Pressure: 2000 atm.
  • Temperature: 100°C to 300°C.

• Addition reaction with water (steam)
  • Catalyst: phosphoric acid.
  • Temperature: 300°C.
  • Pressure: 60 atm.
• \(C_2H_4(g) + H_2O(l) \xrightarrow[]{H_3PO_4} C_2H_5OH(l)\)

• The fermentation process of carbohydrate or sugary substances like rice, barley or fruits
  • These substances contain glucose.
  • Zymase in yeast acts as a catalyst to convert glucose to ethanol. 
• • \(C_6H_{12}O_6(aq) \xrightarrow[]{yis} 2C_2H_5OH(l) + 2CO_2(g)\)

• Combustion of ethanol in excess oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water. 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) + 3O_2 (g) \rightarrow 2CO_2(g) + 3H_2O(l)\)

• Ethanol is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
• Product: ethanoic acid
• Dichromate ion (orange) changes to chromium ion (green). 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{[O]} CH_3COOH(l)\)

• A water molecule is eliminated from the reaction.
• Catalyst: sulphuric acid.
• Temperature: 180°C.
• Product: ethene.
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{H_2SO_4, 180^\circ C} C_2H_4(g) + H_2O(l)\)

• Oxidation of ethanol
  • Ethanol is oxidised by acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution.
  • Dichromate ion (orange) changes to chromium ion (green). 
• \(C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow[]{[O]} CH_3COOH (l)\)

• Product: salt and water
• Also known as neutralisation reaction.
• Example of reaction with sodium hydroxide:
• \(CH_3COOH (aq) + NaOH(aq) \rightarrow CH_3COONa (aq) + H_2O(l)\)

• Product: salt and hydrogen gas  
• Example of reaction with magnesium:
• \(2CH_3COOH (aq) + Mg(s) \rightarrow (CH_3COO)_2Mg (aq) + H_2(g)\)

• Product: salt, carbon dioxide gas and water
• Example of reaction with calcium carbonate:
• \(2CH_3COOH (aq) + CaCO_3(s) \rightarrow (CH_3COO)_2Ca(aq) + H_2O(l) + CO_2(g)\)

• Product: ester.
• Also known as an esterification reaction.
• Catalyst: hydrogen ion.
• \(CH_3COOH (aq) + C_2H_5OH(l) \xrightarrow []{H^+}CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq) + H_2O(l)\)

• Functional group: carboxylate group,  \(-COOC-\)
• General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}COOC_mH_{2m+1}\), where n = 0,1,2,… and m = 1,2,3,…

• Ester is produced by combining alcohol with carboxylic acid.
• There are two parts to naming an ester.
• The first part is based on the name of the alcohol.
• The second part is based on the name of the carboxylic acid.
• Example: Ethyl butanoate.

1. Determine the alkyl group of the alcohol chain based on the structural formula or the molecular formula.
2. Determine the name of the carboxylic acid part.
3. Change the term ‘oic’ in carboxylic acid to ‘oate’.

• Mixing ethanoic acid with ethanol by reflux reaction.
• Reflux is needed because ethanol is a volatile solution.
• \(CH_3COOH(aq)+ C_2H_5OH(aq) \xrightarrow[]{ H_2SO_4}  CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq)+H_2O(l)\)

• A colourless solution at room temperature.
• Nice fruity smell.
• Soluble in water.

• Product: ester.
• Also known as an esterification reaction.
• Catalyst: hydrogen ion.
• Example of esterification reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol:
• \(CH_3COOH(aq)+ C_2H_5OH(aq) \xrightarrow[]{ H_2SO_4}  CH_3COOC_2H_5(aq)+H_2O(l)\)

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