Homologous Series

 
2.2 Homologous Series
 
Importance of Homologous Series
  • In order to study the physical properties and chemical reactions of organic compounds, they are classified into groups of compounds called the homologous series..
 
Characteristics of Homologous Series
  • The same general formula..
  • The same functional group.
  • The same chemical properties.
  • Consecutive members differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms (\(CH_2\) or relative molecular mass = 14).
  • Physical properties that gradually change from one member to the next.
  • The homologous series that will be learned in this topic is as shown below:
    • Alkane
    • Alkene
    • Alkyne
    • Alcohol
    • Carboxylic acid
    • Ester
 
Molecular Formula
A chemical formula that shows the type and actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
 
Structural Formula
Shows the type of bond and how the atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other.
 
Alkane
  • Alkane: a group of organic compounds that are saturated hydrocarbons. 
  • A single carbon atom can form 4 bonds with other atoms.
  • The general formula of alkane: \(C_nH_{2n+2}\)
  • The molecular formula and structural formula of the first ten member of alkanes is as shown below:
 

 

 
Number of Carbon Atoms

Molecular Formula

Structural Formula

Methane
1 \(CH_4\) The diagram shows the structural formula of methane.
Ethane
2 \(C_2H_6\) The diagram shows the structural formula of ethane.
Propane
3 \(C_3H_8\) The diagram shows the structural formula of propane.
Butane
4 \(C_4H_{10}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of butane.
 

 

 

 
Pentane
5 \(C_5H_{12}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of pentane.
Hexane
6 \(C_6H_{14}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of hexane.
Heptane
7 \(C_7H_{16}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of heptane.
 

 

 
Octane
8 \(C_8H_{18}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of octane.
Nonane
9 \(C_9H_{20}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of nonane.
Decane
10 \(C_{10}H_{22}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of decane.
 

 

 
Physical Properties of Alkanes
Name of Alkanes Pysical State
Methane Gas
Ethane Gas
Propane Gas
Butane Gas
Pentane Liquid
Hexane Liquid
Heptane Liquid
Octane Liquid
Nonane Liquid
Decane Liquid
 
Physical Properties of Alkanes
Properties Explaination
Melting Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Boiling Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Density
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
Solubility in Water
  • Insoluble in water.
  • Alkanes are covalent compounds.
Conductivity of Electricity
  • Does not conduct electricity.
  • Does not contain freely moving ions.
 
Alkene
  •  Alkene: a group of organic compounds that are unsaturated hydrocarbons. 
  • The general formula of alkene: \(C_nH_{2n}\)
  • Homologous series: a group of organic compounds represented by a general formula, have the same functional group and every member is different from the others by a common structural unit, \(-CH_2\).
  • Functional group: atom or group of atoms that determines the chemical properties of members of a homologous series.
  • The molecular formula and structural formula of the first ten member of alkene is as stated below:
 

 

 

Number of Carbon Atoms

Molecular Formula

Structural Formula

Ethene
2 \(C_{2}H_{4}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of ethene.
Propene
3 \(C_{3}H_{6}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of propene.
Butene
4 \(C_{4}H_{8}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of butene.
 

 

 
Pentene
5 \(C_{5}H_{10}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of pentene.
Hexene
6 \(C_{6}H_{12}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of hexene.
Heptene
7 \(C_{7}H_{14}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of heptene.
Octene
8 \(C_{8}H_{16}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of octene.
 

 

 
Nonene
9 \(C_{9}H_{18}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of nonene.
Decene
10 \(C_{10}H_{20}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of decene.
 
Physical Properties of Alkenes
Name of Alkene Physical State
Ethene Gas
Propene Gas
Butene Gas
Pentene Liquid
Hexene Liquid
Heptene Liquid
Octene Liquid
Nonene Liquid
Decene Liquid
 

 

 
Properties Explaination
Melting Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Boiling Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Density
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
Solubility in Water
  • Insoluble in water.
  • Alkenes are covalent compounds.
Conductivity of Electricity
  • Does not conduct electricity.
  • Does not contain freely moving ions.
 
Alcohol
  •  Functional group: hydroxyl group, \(-OH\).
  • General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}OH\).
  • The structural formula and molecular formula of alcohol is as shown below:
 
Naming Alcohol
  • Replacing the ‘e’ at the end of the alkane name with ‘ol’.
  • Example: methane to methanol.
  • For a longer alcohol chain, the position of the hydroxyl group is mentioned in the name of the alcohol. 
 
Name of Alcohol Structural Formula
Butan-1-ol The diagram shows the structural formula of butan-1-ol.
Butan-2-ol The diagram shows the structural formula of butan-2-ol.
 
Steps in Naming of Alcohol
  1. Determine the name of the main chain based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest and continuous carbon chain.
  2. The numbering of the main chain starts from the end closes to the hydroxyl group.
  3. Determine the position of the hydroxyl group in the main carbon chain.
  4. Determine the position of the branch chain.
  • Remember, priority is given to the hydroxyl group first, then the branch chain.
 
The image is an infographic titled ‘Physical Properties of Ethanol.’ It features a central light bulb icon with a checkmark, surrounded by five properties of ethanol, each in a blue box with an associated number: 1. A colourless solution at room temperature 2. Nice smell 3. Boiling point: 78°C 4. Volatile 5. Soluble in water The infographic is branded with the Pandai logo in the top left corner.
 
Uses of Alcohol and Its Misuse

Industry

Uses

Daily life
  • Solvents for paints, sticker, ink, lacquer and varnish.
  • Used as fuel.
Production
  • Production of chemicals such as ethanoic acid and ester.
Manufacturing
  • Cosmetics, perfumes, toothpaste and skin lotions.
Pharmaceutical
  • To make medicines
 
Carboxylic Acid
  • Functional group: carboxyl group, \(-COOH\).
  • General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}COOH\).
 
Naming of Carboxylic Acid
  • Replacing the ‘ol’ at the end of alcohol name with ‘oic acid’.
  • Example: methanol to methanoic acid.
 
Steps in Naming Carboxylic Acid
  1. Determine the name of the main chain based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest and continuous carbon chain.
  2. The numbering of the longest carbon chain starts from the carboxyl group.
  3. Determine the position of the branch chain. 
 
Example: Structural Formula for 3,4-Dimethylhexanoic Acid
The diagram shows the structural formula of 3,4-dimethylhexanoic acid.
 
This image is an infographic titled ‘Physical Properties of Ethanoic Acid.’ It features a central light bulb icon with a check mark inside, surrounded by five points arranged in a circular manner. Each point is connected to the central icon with an arrow. The points are: 1. A colourless solution at room temperature 2. Have a sour smell 3. Boiling point: 118°C 4. Volatile 5. Soluble in water The image has a clean, modern design with a white background and blue text and icons. The logo ‘Pandai’ is in the top left corner.
 
Uses of Carboxylic Acid
  • Fruits and vegetables contain carboxylic acid.
    • Orange has citric acid.
  • Milk becomes sour because of the lactic acid formed.
  • Used in daily life items:
    • Cosmetics.
    • Liquid detergent.
  • Used in the food industry:
    • Food flavouring.
    • Food preservatives.
 

 

 

 

 

Homologous Series

 
2.2 Homologous Series
 
Importance of Homologous Series
  • In order to study the physical properties and chemical reactions of organic compounds, they are classified into groups of compounds called the homologous series..
 
Characteristics of Homologous Series
  • The same general formula..
  • The same functional group.
  • The same chemical properties.
  • Consecutive members differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms (\(CH_2\) or relative molecular mass = 14).
  • Physical properties that gradually change from one member to the next.
  • The homologous series that will be learned in this topic is as shown below:
    • Alkane
    • Alkene
    • Alkyne
    • Alcohol
    • Carboxylic acid
    • Ester
 
Molecular Formula
A chemical formula that shows the type and actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
 
Structural Formula
Shows the type of bond and how the atoms in a molecule are bonded to each other.
 
Alkane
  • Alkane: a group of organic compounds that are saturated hydrocarbons. 
  • A single carbon atom can form 4 bonds with other atoms.
  • The general formula of alkane: \(C_nH_{2n+2}\)
  • The molecular formula and structural formula of the first ten member of alkanes is as shown below:
 

 

 
Number of Carbon Atoms

Molecular Formula

Structural Formula

Methane
1 \(CH_4\) The diagram shows the structural formula of methane.
Ethane
2 \(C_2H_6\) The diagram shows the structural formula of ethane.
Propane
3 \(C_3H_8\) The diagram shows the structural formula of propane.
Butane
4 \(C_4H_{10}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of butane.
 

 

 

 
Pentane
5 \(C_5H_{12}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of pentane.
Hexane
6 \(C_6H_{14}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of hexane.
Heptane
7 \(C_7H_{16}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of heptane.
 

 

 
Octane
8 \(C_8H_{18}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of octane.
Nonane
9 \(C_9H_{20}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of nonane.
Decane
10 \(C_{10}H_{22}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of decane.
 

 

 
Physical Properties of Alkanes
Name of Alkanes Pysical State
Methane Gas
Ethane Gas
Propane Gas
Butane Gas
Pentane Liquid
Hexane Liquid
Heptane Liquid
Octane Liquid
Nonane Liquid
Decane Liquid
 
Physical Properties of Alkanes
Properties Explaination
Melting Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Boiling Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Density
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
Solubility in Water
  • Insoluble in water.
  • Alkanes are covalent compounds.
Conductivity of Electricity
  • Does not conduct electricity.
  • Does not contain freely moving ions.
 
Alkene
  •  Alkene: a group of organic compounds that are unsaturated hydrocarbons. 
  • The general formula of alkene: \(C_nH_{2n}\)
  • Homologous series: a group of organic compounds represented by a general formula, have the same functional group and every member is different from the others by a common structural unit, \(-CH_2\).
  • Functional group: atom or group of atoms that determines the chemical properties of members of a homologous series.
  • The molecular formula and structural formula of the first ten member of alkene is as stated below:
 

 

 

Number of Carbon Atoms

Molecular Formula

Structural Formula

Ethene
2 \(C_{2}H_{4}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of ethene.
Propene
3 \(C_{3}H_{6}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of propene.
Butene
4 \(C_{4}H_{8}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of butene.
 

 

 
Pentene
5 \(C_{5}H_{10}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of pentene.
Hexene
6 \(C_{6}H_{12}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of hexene.
Heptene
7 \(C_{7}H_{14}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of heptene.
Octene
8 \(C_{8}H_{16}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of octene.
 

 

 
Nonene
9 \(C_{9}H_{18}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of nonene.
Decene
10 \(C_{10}H_{20}\) The diagram shows the structural formula of decene.
 
Physical Properties of Alkenes
Name of Alkene Physical State
Ethene Gas
Propene Gas
Butene Gas
Pentene Liquid
Hexene Liquid
Heptene Liquid
Octene Liquid
Nonene Liquid
Decene Liquid
 

 

 
Properties Explaination
Melting Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Boiling Point
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
  • Requires more energy to overcome the attractive forces.
Density
  • Increases as going down the group.
  • As going down the group, the molecular size increases.
Solubility in Water
  • Insoluble in water.
  • Alkenes are covalent compounds.
Conductivity of Electricity
  • Does not conduct electricity.
  • Does not contain freely moving ions.
 
Alcohol
  •  Functional group: hydroxyl group, \(-OH\).
  • General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}OH\).
  • The structural formula and molecular formula of alcohol is as shown below:
 
Naming Alcohol
  • Replacing the ‘e’ at the end of the alkane name with ‘ol’.
  • Example: methane to methanol.
  • For a longer alcohol chain, the position of the hydroxyl group is mentioned in the name of the alcohol. 
 
Name of Alcohol Structural Formula
Butan-1-ol The diagram shows the structural formula of butan-1-ol.
Butan-2-ol The diagram shows the structural formula of butan-2-ol.
 
Steps in Naming of Alcohol
  1. Determine the name of the main chain based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest and continuous carbon chain.
  2. The numbering of the main chain starts from the end closes to the hydroxyl group.
  3. Determine the position of the hydroxyl group in the main carbon chain.
  4. Determine the position of the branch chain.
  • Remember, priority is given to the hydroxyl group first, then the branch chain.
 
The image is an infographic titled ‘Physical Properties of Ethanol.’ It features a central light bulb icon with a checkmark, surrounded by five properties of ethanol, each in a blue box with an associated number: 1. A colourless solution at room temperature 2. Nice smell 3. Boiling point: 78°C 4. Volatile 5. Soluble in water The infographic is branded with the Pandai logo in the top left corner.
 
Uses of Alcohol and Its Misuse

Industry

Uses

Daily life
  • Solvents for paints, sticker, ink, lacquer and varnish.
  • Used as fuel.
Production
  • Production of chemicals such as ethanoic acid and ester.
Manufacturing
  • Cosmetics, perfumes, toothpaste and skin lotions.
Pharmaceutical
  • To make medicines
 
Carboxylic Acid
  • Functional group: carboxyl group, \(-COOH\).
  • General formula: \(C_nH_{2n+1}COOH\).
 
Naming of Carboxylic Acid
  • Replacing the ‘ol’ at the end of alcohol name with ‘oic acid’.
  • Example: methanol to methanoic acid.
 
Steps in Naming Carboxylic Acid
  1. Determine the name of the main chain based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest and continuous carbon chain.
  2. The numbering of the longest carbon chain starts from the carboxyl group.
  3. Determine the position of the branch chain. 
 
Example: Structural Formula for 3,4-Dimethylhexanoic Acid
The diagram shows the structural formula of 3,4-dimethylhexanoic acid.
 
This image is an infographic titled ‘Physical Properties of Ethanoic Acid.’ It features a central light bulb icon with a check mark inside, surrounded by five points arranged in a circular manner. Each point is connected to the central icon with an arrow. The points are: 1. A colourless solution at room temperature 2. Have a sour smell 3. Boiling point: 118°C 4. Volatile 5. Soluble in water The image has a clean, modern design with a white background and blue text and icons. The logo ‘Pandai’ is in the top left corner.
 
Uses of Carboxylic Acid
  • Fruits and vegetables contain carboxylic acid.
    • Orange has citric acid.
  • Milk becomes sour because of the lactic acid formed.
  • Used in daily life items:
    • Cosmetics.
    • Liquid detergent.
  • Used in the food industry:
    • Food flavouring.
    • Food preservatives.